Notes+2nd+Semester



2nd Semester Notes

These are the filled in notes for all the units we do for the 2nd semester. The homework questions are at the end of each one. If you are doing make up work, write the answers on a separate piece of paper, MAKING SURE TO LABEL what section you are doing. If you don't label it, I won't grade it.

REFORMATION UNIT ||~ AFRICA UNIT ||~ EXPLORATION AND SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION UNIT || Geography of Europe || Ren. and Ref. Chapter 19 Section 1 The Italian Renaissance || Africa: Chapter 13 Section 1 Geography and Early Africa || Science and Exploration: Chapter 20 Section 1 The Scientific Revolution || Europe After the Fall of Rome || Ren. and Ref. Chapter 19 Section 2 The Renaissance Beyond Italy || Africa: Chapter 13 Section 2 The Empire of Ghana || Science and Exploration: Chapter 20 Section 2 Great Voyages of Discovery || Feudalism and Manor Life || Ren. and Ref. Chapter 19 Section 3 The Reformation of Christianity || Africa: Chapter 13 Section 3 Later Empires || Science and Exploration: Chapter 20 Section 3 New Systems of Trade || Feudal Societies || Corruption of the Church || Africa: Chapter 13 Section 4 Historical and Artistic Traditions ||  || Popes and Kings ||  ||   ||   || The Crusades ||  ||   ||   || Christianity and Medieval Society ||  ||   ||   || Political and Social Change ||  ||   ||   || Challenges to Church Authority ||  ||   ||   ||
 * ~ MIDDLE AGES UNIT ||~ RENAISSANCE AND
 * Middle Ages: Chapter 17 Section 1
 * Middle Ages: Chapter 17 Section 2
 * Middle Ages: Chapter 17 Section 3
 * Middle Ages: Chapter 17 Section 4
 * Middle Ages: Chapter 18 Section 1
 * Middle Ages: Chapter 18 Section 2
 * Middle Ages: Chapter 18 Section 3
 * Middle Ages: Chapter 18 Section 4
 * Middle Ages: Chapter 18 Section 5



__**Middle Ages: Chapter 17 Section 1**__ __** The Geography of Europe **__ 1. What are the regions of Europe and name something unique about them.
 * __ The Big Idea: __** Because Europe has many types of landforms and climates, different ways of life have developed there.
 * __ Main Ideas: __**
 * 1) The physical features of Europe vary widely from region to region.
 * 2) Geography has shaped life in Europe, including where and how people live.
 * __ Main Idea 1: The physical features of Europe vary widely from region to region. __**
 * Europe is a small //__continent__//, but it is very //__diverse__//. Many different landforms, water features, and climates can be found.
 * //__ Topography __// is the shape and elevation of land in a region.
 * __ Regions of Europe __**
 * Mountain Ranges
 * These ranges cover much of //__southern__// Europe. The Alps, with peaks 15,000 feet high, have large snowfields and glaciers.
 * North of the Alps
 * The land is much flatter. It is covered with thick //__forests__// and fertile //__soil__//.
 * Northern European Plain
 * This area has most of Europe’s //__rivers__//, which are formed from the melting of snow.
 * Far Northern Europe
 * Many rugged //__hills__// and low mountains cover this area.
 * __ Climate __**
 * Southern Europe
 * Warm and sunny, //__Drier__// with less rain
 * Northwestern Europe
 * Mild and cooler, Wetter with more // __rain__ //
 * Scandinavia
 * Freezing and cold, Large amounts of // __snowfall__ //
 * __ Main Idea 2: Geography has shaped life in Europe, including where and how people live. __**
 * The different types of climates and landforms made a difference in where people lived and what types of //__crops__// they could grow for food.
 * __ Southern Europe __**
 * Most people lived on //__coastal__// plains or in the valleys, where the land was //__flat__// enough to farm.
 * Crops like //__grapes__// and //__olives__// were suited to this type of geography.
 * Herds of //__sheep__// and //__goats__// were raised in the mountains.
 * There were many //__peninsulas__//, so people didn’t live far from the //__sea.__// Many people became traders and seafarers.
 * __ Northern Europe __**
 * Towns grew up along the //__rivers__// which had access to the sea.
 * Rivers also provided //__protection__// from invaders.
 * Farmers grew crops in the fertile fields that surrounded the //__towns__//.
 * The lack of mountains was good for farming, but it made the towns easier to be //__invaded__// by enemies.
 * Homework: Answer the following questions based upon your notes: (17 points) **
 * ~ Region ||~ Something unique ||
 * 1. -- || - ||
 * 2. ||  ||
 * 3. ||  ||
 * 4. ||  ||

2. How is the climate different in 3 regions?
 * ~ Region ||~ Something unique about CLIMATE ||
 * 1. -- || - ||
 * 2. ||  ||
 * 3. ||  ||

3. Most people in southern Europe became __ __ and __ -- __, while most people in Northern Europe became __ -- __.

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__**Middle Ages: Chapter 17 Section 2**__ __** Europe After the Fall of Rome **__ __ Main Idea 1: Christianity spread to northern Europe through the work of missionaries and monks. __ __ Spread of Christianity __ __ Monks __ __ Influence of Monks __ __ Main Idea 2: The Franks, led by Charlemagne, created a huge Christian empire and brought together scholars from around Europe. __ __ Charlemagne __ __ Accomplishments of Charlemagne __ __ Main Idea 3: Invaders threatened much of Europe in the 700s and 800s. __ __ Invaders of Europe __ 1. Muslims 2. Magyars 3. Vikings
 * __ The Big Idea: __** Despite the efforts of Christians to maintain order, Europe was a dangerous place after the fall of Rome.
 * __ Main Ideas: __**
 * 1) Christianity spread to northern Europe through the work of missionaries and monks.
 * 2) The Franks, led by Charlemagne, created a huge Christian empire and brought together scholars from around Europe.
 * 3) Invaders threatened much of Europe in the 700s and 800s
 * After the fall of Rome, groups moved into Europe and divided the lands among themselves. The leaders of these groups called themselves __kings__.
 * The creation of kingdoms marked the beginning of the __Middle Ages__, a period lasting from 500 to 1500. Another name for this age is the __medieval__ period.
 * The most powerful force that helped spread Christianity was the __pope__.
 * The pope sent __missionaries__, people who try to convert others to a particular religion, to Europe.
 * Some missionaries traveled great __distances__ to spread Christianity.
 * Monks were religious men who lived __apart__ from society in isolated communities.
 * Monks were very dedicated to their faith and spent time in __prayer__, __work__, and __meditation__.
 * Communities of monks, or __monasteries__, were built all over Europe.
 * Although monks lived in isolated communities, they performed many services.
 * The monks gave __aid__ to the poor and needy.
 * They ran __schools__ and copied __books__.
 * The monks collected and saved writings from __Greece__ and __Rome__.
 * Some monks served as scribes and advisers for local rulers. Most European monasteries followed the rules created by Saint __Benedict__, an Italian monk.
 * As Christianity spread, political changes also took place. In the 480s a powerful group called the __Franks__ conquered Gaul. Their influence would extend far beyond Gaul in the coming years.
 * Charlemagne came to power in the 700s.
 * He was the leader of the __Franks.__
 * Charlemagne was a fierce warrior and a strong king.
 * As a warrior, he conquered __many__ kingdoms.
 * As a king, his reign included France, Germany, Austria, Italy, and northern Spain.
 * He led the Franks in building a huge __empire.__
 * The pope crowned Charlemagne the king of the Holy __Roman__ Empire.
 * He was a great administrator of __schools.__
 * __ Scholars __ were brought in during his reign to teach in his kingdom.
 * Many groups posed new threats to Europe. __Invaders__ began to attack settlements all over the continent.
 * __ Muslim __ armies poured into southern France and northern Italy.
 * __ Magyars __ were fierce warriors who swept into Europe, attacking towns and destroying fields.
 * __ Vikings __ came from Scandinavia and raided Britain, Ireland, and western Europe.


 * __ Homework: __**
 * Complete the [[file:mthealthy7thgradess/Charlemagne.pdf|Charlemagne reading and questions]] **

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__**Middle Ages: Chapter 17 Section 3**__ __** Feudalism and Manor Life **__
 * __The Big Idea: A complex web of duties and obligations governed relationships between people in the Middle Ages. __**
 * __Main Ideas: __**
 * 1) Feudalism governed how knights and nobles dealt with each other.
 * 2) Feudalism spread through most of Europe.
 * 3) The manor system dominated Europe’s economy.
 * 4) Towns and trade grew and helped end the feudal system.
 * __Main Idea 1: Feudalism governed how knights and nobles dealt which each other. __**
 * To defend their lands, nobles needed __soldiers__. The best soldiers were __Knights__, warriors who fought on horseback. Knights needed weapons, armor, and horses, so nobles gave __land__ to the knights to support them.
 * A knight who promised to support a lord in exchange for land was called a __Vassal .__
 * Feudalism was a system of __Promises__ that governed the relationships between lords and vassals.
 * __Lords __**
 * Lords sent help to the vassals if they were __Attacked__.
 * They built __castles__ to defend themselves against attack.
 * The lords could not punish the __vassals__ without good reason.
 * If a lord __failed__ to do what he was supposed to, the vassal could break all ties with him.
 * __Vassals __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Served their lords in times of __war__
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gave __Money__ to their lords on special occasions such as weddings
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gave their lords __food__ and __shelter__ whenever they came to visit.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Main Idea 2: Feudalism spread through much of Europe. __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Feudalism was created by the __Franks__, but the system spread to other countries.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Frankish knights introduced __feudalism__ into northern Italy, Spain, and Germany.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Feudalism then spread to Eastern __Europe__ and to __England__.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">William the Conqueror __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A French noble named __William__ was the duke of Normandy when it decided to conquer England.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The duke invaded __England__ in 1066 and became known as William the Conqueror.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">William and his men defeated the English, and William declared himself __King__ of England.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">He gave his knights __land__ in return for their loyalty.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">This was the beginning of __feudalism__ in England.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Main Idea 3: The manor system dominated Europe’s economy. __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">When knights received land from their kings, they did not have time to __farm__ it. At the same time, there were poor people who needed a way to grow food. The __manor__ system was a way to take care of both problems
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Manor System __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A large __estate__ owned by a knight or lord was called a manor.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The manor included a large __house__ or __castle__, pastures, fields, and forests.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Most medieval lords kept one-__half__ to one- __third__ of the land for themselves.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The rest of the __land__ was divided among peasants and serfs, workers who were tied to the land on which they lived.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Serfs and Peasants __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Although they were not __slaves__, they could not __leave__ the land without permission.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">They spent most of their time working for the __lord__ in exchange for a small piece of land.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Farm labor was __hard__, and everyone worked, even __children__.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The lords wanted people to produce everything they needed to __live__.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Manor Lords __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The lords __controlled__ everything that happened on their land.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">They resolved __disputes__ and collected __taxes__ from the people on their land.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The lords lived more comfortably than the serfs and peasants, but they still had to worry about __disease__ and __warfare__.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Main Idea 4: Towns and trade grew and helped end the feudal system. __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">During the Middle Ages, most people lived on __farms__, and towns were small. After about 1000 AD, things began to change, as some towns turned into big __cities__.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Growth of Towns and Trade __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">More people lived in __Europe__ because more __food__ was available.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">New technology, such as a heavier __Plow__ and the horse __Collar__, meant that farmers could be more __productive__.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Trade __increased__ as the population __grew__ and trade routes began to develop across Europe.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">People began to leave the __farms__ and move to the __towns__ in order to make more money.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Homework: Complete the “[[file:mthealthy7thgradess/Feudalism comes to Europe.pdf|Feudalism comes to Europe]]” Reading and questions **

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__**Middle Ages: Chapter 17 Section 4**__ **__ Feudal Societies __** __ Main Idea 1: Feudal societies shared common elements in Europe and Japan. __ Feudalism was not used only in __Europe__. There was also a very similar system in place in __Japan__. __ Lords and Vassals __ __ Knights and Samurai __ __ Main Idea 2: Europe and Japan differed in their cultural elements such as religion and art. __ __ Differences between Europe and Japan __
 * __ The Big Idea: __**** Although the feudal systems of Europe and Japan were similar, their cultures were very different. **
 * __ Main Ideas: __**
 * 1) Feudal societies shared common elements in Europe and Japan.
 * 2) Europe and Japan differed in their cultural elements such as religion and art.
 * Kings and __Lords__ were like the emperors and __Daimyo__, or landowners, of Japan.
 * They controlled the __Land__ and had warriors who helped them defend their property.
 * In Europe the warriors were known as knights. In Japan they were known as __Samuraii__.
 * Both knights and samurai swore their __Loyalty__ to their lords.
 * __ Bushido __ was the code of honor for the samurai.
 * __ Chivalry __ was the code of honorable behavior for the knights in Europe.
 * Knights and samurai were both greatly __Admired__ by the people of their country.
 * Europe and Japan were similar in some ways, such as the __Feudal__ system. However, they also had cultures that were very different.
 * Art
 * European art was mainly about __religion__ and depicting scenes from the __Bible__. Japanese art was about __nature__ and __beauty__.

Based on your notes fill in the questions and venn diagram for homework. Due Thursday. 1. Fill in the blanks - a. __ European __ Art= __ - __ - b. __ -- __ Art= __Nature and Beauty__ 2. Fill in the Blanks - a. __ -- __ Religion = __Christian__ - b. __ Japanese __ Religion = __ --- __ 3. A Noble or lord in Europe is a __ __ in Japan 4. Knights are to Europe as __ --- __ are to Japan. 5. Feudalism existed in Europe and __ - __. 6. Bushido is to a Samurai as __ -- __ is to a Knight. 7. Complete the venn diagram below
 * Religion
 * Nearly all Europeans were __Christian__. The Japanese blended elements of __Buddhism, Shinto, and Confucianism__.



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__**Middle Ages: Chapter 18 Section 1**__ __** Popes and Kings **__
 * __ The Big Idea: __** Popes and kings dominated European society in the Middle Ages.
 * __ Main Ideas: __**
 * 1) Popes and kings ruled Europe as spiritual and political leaders.
 * 2) Popes fought for power, leading to a permanent split within the church.
 * 3) Kings and popes clashed over some issues.
 * __ Main Idea 1: Popes and kings ruled Europe as spiritual and political leaders. __**
 * In the early Middle Ages, nobles and knights held power. However, as time passed, power shifted to __Popes__ and __Kings__.
 * __ The Power of the Popes __**
 * The pope was the head of the __Christian__ church in western Europe.
 * The pope had great power because so many people belonged to the __Church__.
 * People saw the pope as __God’s__ representative on Earth.
 * The pope could cast from the church, or __Excommunicate__, his enemies.
 * Popes had great __Political__ and spiritual power.
 * __ The Power of the Kings __**
 * Europe had been divided into many small __States/Kingdoms__.
 * In three countries, England, France, and the Holy Roman Empire, __Kings__ were the rulers.
 * Kings __Inherited__ their titles from their fathers.
 * Kings kept order through __Alliances__ and warfare.
 * The leader of the Roman Empire was approved by the __Pope__, so the region was also known as the __Holy__ Roman Empire.
 * __ Main Idea 2: Popes fought for power, leading to a permanent split within the church. __**
 * Although the people of western Europe considered the pope the head of the church, __Eastern__ European people disagreed.
 * __ Pope Leo __**
 * Pope Leo IX believed that all Christians should answer to the __Pope__, and that the __Pope__ should be the leader of the whole Christian church.
 * The __Bishop__ of Constantinople disagreed with Pope Leo and wouldn’t recognize his authority, so Pope Leo __Excommunicated__ him.
 * This decision created a permanent __Split__ in the church. The Eastern Orthodox Church was formed by Christians who agreed with the bishop.
 * The rest of the church became known as the __Roman Catholic__ Church. The pope became one of the most __Powerful__ figures in western Europe.
 * __ Main Idea 3: Kings and popes clashed over some issues. __**
 * As popes continued to try to increase their power, they came into conflict with __Kings__.
 * __ Power Struggle __**
 * Pope Gregory VII came to power in __Rome__.
 * The pope disapproved of a __Bishop__ chosen by the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry IV.
 * Henry became angry and tried to have the pope removed; however, the pope __Excommunicated__ Henry.
 * Henry had to __Beg__ the pope for forgiveness to get back into the church.
 * This incident made the pope more __Powerful__ than the emperor at that time.

Power shifts to __ __ and __ - __ in the later middle ages. The Pope was in charge of the __ --- __ church While the Pope couldn’t kill people, he could __ -- __ them from the church The two Christian churches that existed during this time where __ -- __ in the West and __ - __ in the East. Pope Gregory and Henry disagreed over the choice of a __ - __. The disagreement led to Pope Leo __ -- __ Henry. Emperor Henry //begged// Pope Gregory to let him back into the church, why do you think an Emperor would beg the pope to get back into the church? State why and defend your answer (2 points). __ -- __
 * //__ Answer the following questions for homework: (10 points) __//**

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__**Middle Ages: Chapter 18 Section 2**__ **__ The Crusades __** __ The Big Idea: __ The Christian and Muslim cultures fought over holy sites during a series of medieval wars. __ Main Ideas __ 1. The Crusades where fought over __ -- __ and __ -- __. 2. Jerusalem is important to which three religions and why? 3. Pope __ -- __ called for all __ __ to go on Crusade. 4. The Crusaders attacked the __ -- __ in Germany. 5. After the 1 st Crusade, where any of the others successful? __ -- __ 6. What is one reason the Crusades where unsuccessful? __ -- __ 7. List and explain two effects or changes that occurred in Europe because of the Crusades.
 * 1) The pope called on Crusaders to invade the Holy Land.
 * 2) Despite some initial success, the later Crusades failed.
 * 3) The Crusades changed Europe forever.
 * __ Main Idea 1: The pope called on crusaders to invade the Holy Land. __**
 * The __Crusades__ were a long series of wars between Christians and Muslims in Southwest Asia, generally called the Holy Land.
 * The wars were fought over control of __Palestine__, and __Jerusalem__.
 * Palestine was considered the Holy Land, because it was the region where __Jesus__ had lived, preached, and __Died__.
 * Also Jerusalem was important to other __Religions__ because
 * To __Muslims__ it was the place where __Muhammad__ ascended to heaven
 * To __Jews__ It was the site of the ancient Temple built by __Solomon__.
 * __ Causes of the Crusades __**
 * Palestine and Jerusalem, part of the Holy Land, had fallen into the hands of __Turkish__ Muslims.
 * The Turks attacked Christian __Pilgrims__ in the Holy Land and made it dangerous to travel.
 * The Turks began to raid the __Byzantine__ Empire, so their pope called on the Roman Catholic Church for help.
 * __ A Call to Arms __**
 * Pope __Urban II__ called on Christians to retake the Holy Land.
 * Five thousand men came to fight and sewed crosses on their clothing to show that they were fighting for __God__.
 * The word __Crusade__ comes from the Latin for “marked with a __Cross__ .”
 * __ The First Crusade __**
 * On the way to the Holy Land, the crusaders attacked __Jews__ in Germany, blaming them for the death of __Jesus__.
 * Before the Crusaders reached the Holy Land, the __Turks__ killed most of the untrained and ill-equipped __Peasants__.
 * The nobles and knights moved on and defeated the disorganized __Muslim__ army at Jerusalem.
 * The crusaders set up __Four__ small kingdoms in the Holy Land and began __Trading__ with Europe. The rulers of these kingdoms created a __Lord__ and __Vassal__ system like they had known at home.
 * Main Idea 2: Despite some initial success the later Crusades failed. **
 * The Christians were __Unable__ to keep the Muslims from taking back land that had been won in the First Crusades.
 * Europeans launched more Crusades, but they were __Not__ successful__.__
 * By __1291__ the Muslim armies had taken back all of the Holy Land, and the Crusades had ended.
 * __ Failures of the Crusades __**
 * The Crusaders had to travel __Far__, and many __Died__ along the way.
 * The Crusaders weren’t prepared to fight in the __Desert__ climate.
 * The Christians were __outnumbered__ and had poor __leadership__.
 * Main Idea 3: The Crusades changed Europe forever. **
 * Although the Crusades were a failure, they brought many lasting __Changes__ to Europe.
 * __ Trade __ between Europe and Asia grew.
 * Muslim __Ideas__ were brought to Europe.
 * Effects of the Crusades **
 * Some __Kings__ and nobles increased their power because others had __Died__ in the Crusades.
 * Due to the killings of the __Jews__, there was distrust between Christians and Jews.
 * A mutual __Respect__ developed between some Christians and Muslims.
 * In general though, the Crusaders saw Muslims as unbelievers who threatened innocent Christians and Muslims viewed the Crusaders as Vicious __invaders.__
 * Answer the following questions for homework: **** (17 points) **
 * ~ Religion ||~ importance of Jerusalem ||
 * A. -- || -- ||
 * B. ||  ||
 * C. ||  ||
 * ~ List ||~ Explanation ||
 * 1. || - - ||
 * 2. ||  ||

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__**Middle Ages: Chapter 18 Section 3**__ **__ Christianity and Medieval Society __**
 * __The Big Idea:__** The Christian Church was central to life in the Middle Ages.
 * __Main Ideas:__**
 * 1) The Christian Church shaped both society and politics in medieval Europe.
 * 2) Orders of monks and friars did not like the church’s political nature.
 * 3) Church leaders helped build the first universities in Europe.
 * 4) The church influenced the arts in medieval Europe
 * __Main Idea 1: The Christian Church shaped society and politics in medieval Europe.__**
 * In the Middle Ages the life of the people revolved around the __church.__
 * Church officials, called __clergy__, and their teachings were very influential in European culture and politics.
 * __Influence of the Church__**
 * Markets, festivals, and religious activities all revolved around the __church__.
 * People wanted to see religious sites, so they went on __pilgrimages__, which are journeys to religious places.
 * One popular destination was __Canterbury,__ England, which is outside London. The famous __book__ Canterbury Tales is written about a group of pilgrims who went on a pilgrimage.
 * __The Church and Politics__**
 * The church gained __political__ power during the Middle Ages.
 * The church was one of the largest __landholders__ in Europe because many people left land to the church after they died.
 * Of all the clergy, bishops and abbots were the most involved in political matters.
 * They became political __advisers.__ Some became so involved in political matters that they spent little time dealing with __religious__ affairs.
 * __Main Idea 2: Orders of monks and friars did not like the church’s political nature.__**
 * Not everyone was happy with the involvement of the church in politics. Among those who were unhappy were a group of French monks, the __Monks of Cluny__.
 * __The Monks of Cluny__**
 * They were a group of monks who followed a __strict__ schedule of prayers and religious services.
 * These monks formed a __religious__ order called the Cluniac monks. A religious __order__ is a group of people who dedicate their lives to religion and follow common rules.
 * The Cluniacs became an example of how monks should live. New monasteries were built to follow their example.
 * Some people felt that the Cluniacs were not strict enough, so they formed new orders. They practiced vows of __silence__ and isolation.
 * Women became __nuns__ and formed orders known as convents.
 * Monks and nuns did a great deal for society.
 * Collected and stored __texts__ that explained Christian teachings
 * __Copied__ these documents and sent copies to other monasteries across Europe
 * __Friars__**
 * Dominicans and Franciscans were groups known as friars, people who belonged to religious orders but lived and worked among the general __public__.
 * Friars lived simply and wore plain robes and no shoes. They owned __no__ property and roamed about, preaching and begging for food.
 * Their main goal was to __teach__ people how to live good Christian lives.
 * __Main Idea 3: Church leaders helped build the first universities in Europe.__**
 * Although some people were withdrawing from the world into monasteries, there were others who wanted to learn more about the world. This led to the creation of the first __universities.__
 * __Early Universities Created by the Church__**
 * The church’s goal was to __teach__ people about the church.
 * Most teachers at the church-created universities were c__lergy.__
 * Besides religion, the universities taught __law__, __medicine__, __astronomy__, and other courses.
 * __New Ideas__**
 * As people began to study new subjects, they developed new ideas.
 * Some people in the university began to wonder how human reason and Christian thought were __related__.
 * Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican philosopher, argued that rational thought could support Christian beliefs.
 * Thomas believed that God had created a law that governed how the world operated, called __natural__ law. He believed that if people would study and learn more about this law, they could learn to live the way God wanted
 * __Main Idea 4: The church influenced the arts in medieval Europe.__**
 * Throughout the Middle Ages, __religious__ feelings inspired artists and architects to create beautiful works of art.
 * __Religious Architecture__**
 * __Churches__ became works of art
 * The grandest churches were called __cathedrals__, large churches in which bishops led services.
 * Towering __Gothic__ cathedrals were built in Europe in the 1100s
 * Gothic churches were much __taller__ than older churches and had huge windows of stained glass.
 * __Religious Art__**
 * Paintings and __tapestries__ were created to show respect for God.
 * Priests wore highly decorated __robes,__ sometimes with threads made of gold.
 * Monks copied beautiful religious __books__ with gold and silver that made the pages glow.

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__**Middle Ages: Chapter 18 Section 4**__ **__ Political and Social Change __** __The Big Idea:__ Europe’s political and social systems underwent great changes in the late Middle Ages. __Main Ideas:__
 * 1) 1. Magna Carta caused changes in England’s government and legal system.
 * 2) 2. The Hundred Years’ War led to political changes in England and France.
 * 3) 3. The Black Death, which swept through Europe in the Middle Ages, led to social changes.
 * __ Main Idea 1: Magna Carta caused changes in England’s government and legal systems. __**
 * In 1215 a group of nobles decided to force __King__ John to respect their rights. They forced him to sign a document called __Magna Carta__, which in Latin means “__Great Charter__.”
 * __ Effects of the Magna Carta __**
 * The document granted the right of “__habeas corpus__,” which meant people could not be put in __jail__ without a reason. Kings could not have people __arrested__ without good cause.
 * Everyone had to __obey__ the laws, even the __king.__
 * The king’s council became __Parliament,__ the lawmaking body that governs England today. By the late Middle Ages, __kings__ could do little without Parliament’s support.
 * __ Courts __ became free of __royal__ control when the king could no longer choose judges.
 * The Magna Carta began the English people’s movement toward __democracy__.
 * __ Main Idea 2: The Hundred Years’ War led to political changes in England and France. __**
 * Political change also came to __France__, but it came through war and adversity.
 * __ The Hundred Years’ War __**
 * In 1328 the king of France died without an __heir__. One potential king was __French__, and the other was the king of __England__.
 * The Frenchman became king, which upset the king of England. The English king __invaded__ France and began the Hundred Years’ War.
 * After nearly 100 years of fighting, the French troops were rallied by a teenage peasant girl named __Joan of Arc__. Although she was burned alive by the English as a __Witch,__ her death motivated the French to drive out the English.
 * __ Results of the War __**
 * The English Parliament grew __stronger__ because the king had needed it to help pay for the war.
 * The king began to __lose__ power as Parliament grew stronger.
 * In France, the __king’s__ power grew stronger.
 * Fighting the English formed a bond between the king and the __nobles__.
 * __ Main Idea 3: The Black Death, which swept through Europe in the Middle Ages, led to social changes. __**
 * While the French and the English fought the Hundred Years’ War, another crisis was sweeping through Europe. The __Black Death__, a deadly __plague,__ moved quickly through Europe between 1347 and 1351.
 * The Black Death was caused by several different forms of plague, such as bubonic plague.
 * __ Effects of the Black Death __**
 * The Black Death killed so many people that they were __buried__ without priests or ceremonies.
 * In some villages nearly __everyone__ died or fled. One __million__ people were killed.
 * The __manor__ system fell apart because there were not enough people to work the fields.
 * People abandoned the manors and villages and moved to the __cities__.

__ --- __
 * Answer the following questions for Homework: (15 points)**
 * 1) In Latin, “Great Charter” Means__ - __.
 * 2) Today a person cannot be arrested without a reason, this is due to the right of__ -- __//.//
 * 3) A key component to the Great Charter was that Everyone had to obey, even the __ --- __.
 * 4) In addition the Great Charter removed the ability of the Kings to choose__ --- __, freeing the Justice system of Royal influence.
 * 5) The 100 year war was between __ --- __and __ - __.
 * 6) The French eventually win the war with the__ -- __of__ __, a peasant girl.
 * 7) Following the war, the English King grew__ __while the French King grew__ -- __.
 * 8) Created to advise the king, today the__ -- __is the lawmaking body in England.
 * 9) About 1/3rd of the population of Europe died or about__ --- __people.
 * 10) While the Black Death was very deadly it caused an__ __in the population of cities.
 * 11) While the death of millions is terribly tragic, it had some positive impacts on European society. How might the death of so many people help boost the economy and lead to greater equality amongst peasants and nobles? **(2 points)**

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__**Middle Ages: Chapter 18 Section 5**__ **__ Challenges to Church Authority __**
 * __ The Big Idea: __**** In the Middle Ages, the Christian Church dealt harshly with people who did not respect its authority. **
 * __ Main Ideas: __**
 * 1) The church reacted to challengers by punishing people who opposed its teachings.
 * 2) Christians fought Moors in Spain and Portugal in an effort to drive all Muslims out of Europe.
 * 3) Jews faced discrimination across Europe in the Middle Ages.
 * __ Main Idea 1: The church reacted to challengers by punishing people who opposed its teachings __**
 * By around 1100 some Christians had begun to __Question__ the teachings of the church. Religious ideas that oppose accepted church teachings are called __Heresies__.
 * __ Heretics __ are people who have ideas that are believed to be heresy.
 * Church officials sent __Priests__ and __Friars__ to find heretics. Some used __Torture__ to make people confess.
 * Most people were found __Guilty__ and fined, put into prison, or killed.
 * Pope Innocent III decided that heresy was widespread and encouraged the king of __France__ to rid the land of heretics.
 * This began a bloody war that would last __20__ years, destroying many towns and lives.
 * __ Main Idea 2: Christians fought Moors in Spain and Portugal in an effort to drive all Muslims out of Europe. __**
 * By the late 900s the Muslim government of Spain had begun to __Weaken__.
 * The kingdom of Spain fought against the Moors and eventually drove them __out__ of Spain and Europe.
 * By 1469 Spain was reunited under the rule of King __Ferdinand__ and Queen __Isabella__.
 * __ The Spanish Inquisition __**
 * Ferdinand and Isabella wanted only __Christians__ in their kingdom.
 * To make sure that only Christianity was practiced, they created the __Spanish Inquisition__.
 * The Spanish Inquisition was an organization of __Priests__ who looked for and punished non-Christians.
 * They were ruthless in their search for heretics, Muslims, and Jews. Most people found guilty were __Killed__ by being __Burned__ in public.
 * About __2,000__ people died in Spain, and about 1,400 in the Portuguese Inquisition.
 * __ Main Idea 3: Jews faced discrimination across Europe in the Middle Ages. __**
 * Heretics and Muslims were not the only groups punished for their beliefs. European __Jews__ also suffered at the hands of Christians who believed Jews were responsible for the death of Jesus.
 * __ Discrimination against the Jews __**
 * Rulers, supported by the church, forced Jews to __Leave__ their countries.
 * In the Holy Roman Empire, frightened people blamed the Jews for the __Black Death__. Jews had to __Flee__ their homes to escape angry mobs.
 * Answer the following questions for homework (17 points). **
 * 1) What had people begun to do in the 1100’s? __ - __.
 * 2) People who disagreed with the church were called __ __, and when they were found guilty where punished by __ -- __ , __ -- __ , and __ __.
 * 3) The Spanish, led by King __ __ and Queen __ - __ were finally able to drive out the Moors.
 * 4) The Spanish Inquisition was led by __ -- __, who used torture to interrogate it’s prisoners, which lead to the death’s of __ __ in Spain and __ -- __ in Portugal by __ --- __ at the stake (public execution).
 * 5) Jews are not trusted because they are blamed for the death of __ __ . In addition they were also blamed for the __ --- __.
 * 6) Many Jews were either forced to __ --- __ their country, or had to run to escape angry __ __.
 * 7) How might the policies of the Church during this time, have encouraged the questioning of the Church instead of stopping it? Give your answer and defend it (2 points)

__ --- __

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__**Renaissance and Reformation: Chapter 19 Section 1**__ **__ The Italian Renaissance __** __Main Ideas:__
 * __The Big Idea:__ The growth of wealthy trading cities in Italy led to a rebirth of the arts and learning called the Renaissance.**
 * 1) Increased trade with Asia brought wealth to Italian trade cities, leading to the Renaissance.
 * 2) Italian writers and artists contributed great works during the Renaissance.
 * __Main Idea 1: Increased trade with Asia brought wealth to Italian trade cities, leading to the Renaissance.__**
 * After the end of the Black Death, the economy of Europe began to __grow__ again. Goods became available, people bought more, and trade increased.
 * __Trade with Asia__**
 * In the 1200s, the __Mongols__ took over China. They made roads safe again, including the Silk Road, a trade route between __Europe__ and China.
 * Traders and travelers began to use the routes again. One famous trader was __Marco Polo__, who traveled with his family. Some of their journeys went over the Silk Road.
 * When the Polos arrived in China, they met the Mongol emperor Kublai Khan. The Polos spent 20 years in Asia.
 * A writer helped Polo record his journey. Descriptions about Asia made Europeans __curious__, and they desired __Asian__ goods.
 * __The Trading Cities of Italy__**
 * Four northern Italian cities became trading centers.
 * Florence
 * Genoa
 * Milan
 * Venice
 * The cities of Milan and Florence were __ manufacturing __ centers. Venice and Genoa were __ port __ cities on the Mediterranean Sea, where the goods and services flowed.
 * Milan produced __ weapons __ and silk. Florence was a center for weaving __ wool __ into cloth.
 * __Florence__**
 * __Florence__ stands out as an example of the great trade and wealth coming into Italy.
 * Wool trade initially created wealth, but __banking__ increased that wealth.
 * Bankers kept money for merchants all over Europe and made money by charging __interest__, a fee that lenders charge people who borrow money from them.
 * The __Medici__ family were the greatest of the Florence bankers.
 * Cosimo Medici wanted Florence to be the most beautiful city in the world.
 * He also valued __education__ and built libraries and collected books.
 * The love of art and education was a key feature of a time we call the Renaissance, which means “__rebirth__.”
 * __Main Idea 2: Italian writers and artists contributed great works during the Renaissance.__**
 * During the Middle Ages, people were devoted to religious study. By the 1300s, scholars began to study subjects such as history, literature, public speaking, and art.
 * These subjects were called the __humanities__, and they led to the thinking and learning known as humanism.
 * __Humanism__ is a way of thinking and learning that stresses the importance of human abilities and actions.
 * __Rediscovering the Past__**
 * The popularity of the humanities was due to a new interest in __ancient__ history.
 * During the 1300s, when the Turks conquered much of the Byzantine Empire, scholars fled to Europe and took great works of literature with them.
 * Many of the works were ancient classical writings, such as works by __Greek__ thinkers.
 * Italian scholars wanted to revive subjects that the Greeks and __Romans__ had studied.
 * Other sources of inspiration were Roman ruins and fine classical __statues__.
 * __Italian Writers: Dante and Machiavelli__**
 * Dante Alighieri was a politician and poet. Dante wrote in __Italian__, the common language of the people.
 * Before Dante, most medieval writers had written in __Latin__.
 * Niccolò Machiavelli wrote __The Prince__. He was also a politician, and his book told leaders how to rule.
 * Told politicians to focus on the “__here and now__,” not on theories
 * __Italian Art and Artists__**
 * During the Renaissance, Italian artists created some of the __most__ beautiful paintings and sculptures in the world.
 * New techniques, like __perspective__, made their work come alive.
 * Perspective is a way of showing __depth__ on a flat surface.
 * __Great Artists__**
 * There were several great Italian Renaissance artists, but two stand out.
 * __Michelangelo__ was one of the great Italian artists. He was known as a master. He not only painted portraits but also designed buildings, wrote poetry, and painted murals on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican.
 * __Leonardo da Vinci__ was the true genius of the Renaissance. He was a great painter, sculptor, architect, inventor, and engineer. He studied anatomy, the structure of human bodies, to make his paintings more real. His Mona Lisa portrait is one example


 * Homework: Complete the following on a separate piece of paper. (11 points)**
 * 1) Pick one of the **//__writers__//** during this time that you would be most interested in meeting, Why did you pick them, what would you ask them and why? (4 points)
 * 2) Pick one of the **//__artists__//** during this time that you would be most interested in meeting, Why did you pick them, what would you ask them and why? (4 Points)
 * 3) If the word Renaissance means “Rebirth” what is being reborn during this time? (2 points)
 * 4) **Who** inspired the Europeans to want to trade more for Asian Goods? (1Point)

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__**Renaissance and Reformation: Chapter 19 Section 2**__ **__ The Renaissance beyond Italy __** __Main Ideas:__
 * __The Big Idea: The Renaissance spread far beyond Italy, and as it spread, it changed.__**
 * 1) During the Renaissance, advances in science and education were made.
 * 2) New ideas from the Renaissance spread across Europe through the development of paper, printing, and new universities.
 * __Main Idea 1: During the Renaissance, advances in science and education were made.__**
 * Some Renaissance scientists thought __mathematics__ could help them understand the universe.
 * They created many math __symbols__ that we still use today.
 * Engineers and architects used new math __formulas__ to strengthen __buildings__.
 * Other scientists studied __astronomy__ to learn more about the sun, stars, and planets.
 * They learned that the __earth__ moves around the __sun__.
 * Students began to study the __humanities__ as well as religious subjects.
 * __Main Idea 2: New ideas from the Renaissance spread across Europe through the development of paper, printing, and new universities.__**
 * Johannes __Gutenberg__, a German man living in the mid-1400s, developed a printing press with __movable__ type. He printed the __Bible__ in 1456. More people learned to __read__ as books became more readily available.
 * Students from around Europe traveled to __Italy__ to study at the universities.
 * New __universities__ began to open in France, Germany, and the Netherlands.
 * Women from noble families were often educated at home. They then married nobles from around Europe and __spread__ the Renaissance ideas to their husbands’ lands.
 * The Northern Renaissance**
 * Northern scholars focused on the history of Christianity. The resulting combination of humanist and religious ideas is called __Christian humanism__.
 * Northern scholars came to feel the church was __corrupt__ and did not follow the teachings of Jesus. They called for __reform__.
 * Art**
 * Northern artists painted in a more __realistic__ style and painted more daily-life subjects.
 * Albrecht __Dürer__ was an artist from Germany who was most famous for his prints.
 * A __print__ is a work of art reproduced from an original.
 * Studied anatomy so he could paint people more __realistically__
 * Literature beyond Italy**
 * Writers in other countries besides Italy also included Renaissance ideas in their work. They wrote in their own __languages__.
 * Miguel de __Cervantes__ was a Spanish writer who wrote __Don Quixote__.
 * William __Shakespeare__ wrote plays and poetry and is considered the greatest __writer__ in the English language


 * Answer the following questions for homework (16 points) **

1. What did scholars think could help them understand the universe? What did they create to help them with it? __ -- __ __ __ 2. What did they use Math formulas to strengthen? __ -- ____ . __ 3. When they studied astronomy they learned that the __ __ revolved around the __ -- __ instead of the other way around, like the church said. 4. The first book printed by Mr. __ --- __ was the __ -- __ with his __ __ type Printing press. 5. While not very powerful __ - __ were very important in spreading Renaissance Ideas. 6. A major change during this time was the vocal call for __ __ in the church by Northern Scholars as they felt the Church was too __ __. 7. One key thing about the northern writers where that they wrote in their own __ --- __. 8. List two writers of this time and a piece of work by each.
 * ~ writers ||~ Work ||
 * 1. -- || -- ||
 * 2. ||  ||

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__**Renaissance and Reformation: Chapter 19 Section 3**__ **__ The Reformation of Christianity __** __Main Ideas:__
 * __The Big Idea: Efforts to reform the Roman Catholic Church led to changes in society and the creation of new churches.__**
 * 1) Reformers called for change in the Catholic Church, but some broke away to form new churches.
 * 2) The Catholic Reformation was an attempt to reform the church from within.
 * 3) The political impact of the Reformation included religious wars and social change.
 * __Main Idea 1: Reformers called for change in the Catholic Church, but some broke away to form new churches.__**
 * By the late Renaissance, people had begun to __complain__ about problems in the Catholic Church.
 * They called on its leaders to end __corruption__ and focus on religion.
 * Their calls led to a reform movement against the Roman Catholic Church called the __Reformation__.
 * Unpopular Church Practices**
 * People felt that the clergy and the pope had become too __political__.
 * The way the church raised __money__ was also considered unfair. The sale of __indulgences__ was unpopular.
 * An indulgence was a document given by the pope that excused a person from penalties for __sins__ he or she had committed.
 * The idea that the church was letting people __buy__ their way into heaven made Christians angry.
 * These unpopular practices weakened the church, and people began calling for __reform__.
 * Martin Luther**
 * Martin Luther nailed a list of complaints to the door of a church in Wittenberg. This list was called the __Ninety-five Theses__.
 * The __printing press__ allowed this list to be spread to neighboring states.
 * Luther thought that anyone could have a __direct__ relationship with __God__.
 * He did not believe that __priests__ had to speak to God for the people.
 * Beliefs should be based on the __Bible__, not interpreted by priests or the pope.
 * Luther translated the Bible into __German__ so that Europeans could read it for the first time.
 * Other Reformers**
 * William __Tyndale__ believed everyone should be able to read and interpret the Bible. He translated the Bible into __English__, and the Catholic authorities had him __executed__.
 * John __Calvin__ believed that God knew who would be saved even before they were born. This is called __predestination__. Nothing that people did during their lives would change God’s plan, but it was important to live a good life and obey God’s laws.
 * __Henry VIII__ wanted to leave his marriage. The pope refused Henry’s request, so he left the Catholic Church and created his own __church__.
 * The Church of __England__, or Anglican Church, was much like the Catholic Church, but it opened the door for other __churches__ to form.
 * __Main Idea 2: The Catholic Reformation was an attempt to reform the church from within.__**
 * Protestantism spread in the later 1500s and 1600s. Catholic leaders responded to __stop__ this spread.
 * The effort to reform the Catholic Church from within is called the __Catholic__ Reformation, or __Counter__-Reformation.
 * The Growth of Roman Catholic Spain**
 * In 1492 the king and queen defeated the last Muslim forces in Spain.
 * Muslims and Jews were __forced__ to convert to Catholicism.
 * The Spanish Inquisition was organized to seek out and punish Muslims and Jews who had converted but secretly kept their old beliefs.
 * The Catholic Church was ruthless in carrying out the Inquisition and later sought out Protestants.
 * The Catholics had very little opposition left in Spain.
 * New Religious Orders**
 * In some parts of Europe, Catholic leaders responded to Protestant criticism by forming new religious orders, or communities.
 * The first new order in Spain was created by Ignatius of __Loyola__.
 * The order was called the Society of Jesus, or the __Jesuits__.
 * The Jesuits were a religious order created to serve the pope and the church.
 * Jesuits were trained to be as __disciplined__ as soldiers in their __religious__ duties.
 * By __teaching__ people about Catholic ideas, Jesuits hoped to turn people against Protestantism.
 * The Council of Trent**
 * Catholic leaders met together to discuss more ways to reform the Catholic Church. This meeting was known as the Council of Trent.
 * The council restated the importance of the clergy in interpreting the __Bible__.
 * The council ordered the bishops to __live__ in the areas where their churches were located.
 * The council officially __rejected__ the ideas of the Protestant leaders.
 * The pope created religious __courts__ to punish Protestants found in Italy.
 * Catholic Missionaries**
 * __Missionaries__ were people whose goal was to take Catholic teachings around the world.
 * Many of the new Catholic missionaries were Jesuits. These priests went to __Africa__, __Asia__, and __America__.
 * One of the most important missionaries was a Jesuit named __Francis Xavier__, who took Catholicism to India and Japan.
 * Missionaries __baptized__ millions of people, and through their work the effects of the Catholic Reformation reached __far__ beyond Europe.
 * __Main Idea 3: The political impact of the Reformation included religious wars and social change.__**
 * In Spain nearly everyone was still Catholic.
 * In northern countries people were mostly __Protestant__.
 * The Holy Roman Empire was a patchwork of different kingdoms, some Protestant and some Catholic.
 * These divisions led to political __conflicts__.
 * Religious Wars in France**
 * Protestants in France were called __Huguenots__.
 * The Huguenots and the Catholics began a war when the Catholic king __banned__ all Protestant religions.
 * Violence began in 1562 and did not end until 1598.
 * Fighting was ended by the Edict of Nantes, which granted religious __freedom__ to the Protestants in France, except in Paris and a few other cities.
 * Religious Wars in the Holy Roman Empire**
 * King of Bohemia __forced__ everyone in the kingdom to become Catholic.
 * Protestants rose up in revolt in 1618.
 * This led to the Thirty Years’ War.
 * The war grew, and both sides called on other countries to come to their aid.
 * After 30 years of fighting, an agreement was reached—The Treaty of Westphalia.
 * It allowed __rulers__ to decide whether their countries would be Catholic or Protestant.
 * The states of Germany became independent with no single rule, __independent__ of the Holy Roman Empire.
 * Social Changes**
 * Through the Protestant Church, people began to make decisions about their churches. Now that they had that power, they also wanted __political__ power.
 * Local towns began to __govern__ themselves, and the national government had to __share__ power.
 * The sharing of power between local governments and a strong central government is called __federalism__.
 * On an individual level, people began to think more for __themselves,__ and to investigate on their own.

1. List two of the reformers and what they said or did. 2. Name two of the four things the Council of Trent did to reform the Catholic Church (or list all four for extra credit) 3. What were the names of the two saints and what did they do? 4. What is the name of Martin’s complaints? __ __ What did it focus on? __ . __
 * Do the following assignment for homework: (12 points)**
 * ~ Reformer ||~ What they did ||
 * A. - || ||
 * B. ||  ||
 * Reforms ||
 * A. - ||
 * B. ||
 * C. ||
 * D. ||
 * Saints || What they did ||
 * A. - || ||
 * B. ||  ||

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__**Corruption of the Church**__ Corruption of the Church A discussion of what the church acquired and used.


 * Early Beliefs
 * When one dies they go to Purgatory:
 * A waiting room of sorts to pay of any sins and to be judged
 * Time in Purgatory is based upon sins committed on earth
 * Can get “get out of jail” cards by doing certain things
 * Confession, Hail Mary’s, honoring Relics, Indulgences.
 * Relics
 * Relics: Clothes, bones, tools, of the saints
 * The closer to Jesus the more important the Relic is.
 * Church would certify it was a true relic for a fee.
 * People would show relics off for a fee
 * Duplicates and fakes were common
 * Relics-classes
 * Broken down into classes
 * "First class" pertains to body parts of saints--a fingernail of the Apostle Paul, say, or a strand of the Virgin Mary's hair.
 * Second class encompasses the relics of lesser figures--Mother Teresa's tennis shoes.
 * The third class is items that have "touched" something first class.
 * Relics-Splinter from the Cross
 * A splinter from the True Cross, so small it requires a magnifying glass to see. This item comes with a red papal seal (meaning it's been vetted or confirmed by the Vatican) and papers.
 * Relics-Touched Nail
 * A "touched" nail, meaning a nail that has touched a nail from the True Cross (the one Christ was crucified upon).
 * Relics-Holy Flask
 * A small lead flask that shows the Crucifixion in the way it was depicted in the sixth century. A pilgrim from that era would have filled this with water from the River Jordan.
 * Relics-Reliquary cross
 * A small reliquary cross containing tiny fragments of the bones of saints embedded in wax
 * Relics-Stone from Mt. Tabor
 * A reliquary with a stone from Mount Tabor in Israel, the site of the transfiguration of Christ.
 * Relics-The Vatican
 * The Vatican, Capital of Catholic Christianity, as one might expect, has some excellent relics. Among them, a fragment of the table from the Last Supper and the marble stairs that are the same ones Jesus ascended on his way to meet with Pontius Pilate.
 * Indulgences
 * A “get out of Purgatory” card
 * Could be purchased for a fee
 * Could be bought for anyone (I could buy one for my daughters)
 * Would wipe out any sins
 * Inheritance
 * Early church Clergy members became very wealthy and got married with children. When they die their wealth was split up amongst their children
 * Church doesn’t like this, so Ban marriage, when clergy dies, wealth goes to the church.
 * Buildings or Art
 * Convince people that the following will help people get into heaven
 * Building great Churches of worship (cathedrals, like Hagia Sophia, Westminster abbey, Notre Dame)
 * Donating money to the church
 * Sponsoring great works of Art, sculptures, paintings, writings that promote religion.
 * Donating Relics

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__**Africa: Chapter 13 Section 1**__ __** Geography and Early Africa **__

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__**Africa: Chapter 13 Section 2**__ __** The Empire of Ghana **__

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__**Africa: Chapter 13 Section 3**__ __** Later Empires **__

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__**Africa: Chapter 13 Section 4**__ __** Historical and Artistic Traditions **__

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__**Science and Exploration: Chapter 20 Section 1**__ __** The Scientific Revolution **__
 * The Big Idea: ** Europeans developed a new way of gaining knowledge, leading to a Scientific Revolution that changed the way people thought about the world.
 * __ Main Ideas: __**
 * 1) The Scientific Revolution marked the birth of modern science.
 * 2) Discoveries and inventions helped scientists study the natural world.
 * 3) The Scientific Revolution had broad effects on society, changing ideas about the physical world, human behavior, and religion.
 * __ Main Idea 1: The Scientific Revolution marked the birth of modern science. __ **
 * The series of events that led to the birth of modern science is called the Scientific Revolution.
 * Science was a completely different way of looking at the world.
 * Science starts with observations, and then scientists begin to identify the facts.
 * The explanations that scientists develop based on the facts are called theories.
 * Scientists design experiments to prove their theories.
 * Roots of the Revolution **
 * Many ideas of the Scientific Revolution had been expressed in ancient times.
 * Greek thinkers such as Aristotle and Ptolemy were rationalists. Europeans studied their work and also began to view the world in a rational way, thinking like scientists.
 * Rationalists looked at the world in a rational, or reasonable and logical, way.
 * Developments in Europe, such as the growth of humanism, helped bring about the Scientific Revolution.
 * __ Main Idea 2: Discoveries and inventions helped scientists study the natural world. __ **
 * Christopher Columbus set out to sail to Asia using a map created by the ancient Greek Ptolemy.
 * Columbus reached North America before he reached Asia.
 * This proved that the ancient Greek authorities were incorrect.
 * This led other people to question the theories of the ancient Greeks.
 * Advances in Astronomy **
 * In 1543 Nicolaus Copernicus published a book that contradicted what Ptolemy had written. Many historians believe that this book marked the beginning of the Scientific Revolution.
 * Ptolemy believed the earth was at the center of the universe.
 * Copernicus said the planets orbited the sun.
 * Tycho Brahe charted the positions of hundreds of stars, using careful observation and detailed recordings.
 * Johannes Kepler observed that planets moved in oval orbits, not circular ones.
 * Galileo Galilei was the first person to study the sky with a telescope. He used experiments to test his theories.
 * Sir Isaac Newton **
 * Sir Isaac Newton was a British scientist who wrote the book Principia Mathematica.
 * Newton was one of the greatest scientists who ever lived.
 * Some of his theories have been proved so many times that they are now called laws.
 * One of Newton’s laws is called the law of gravity. The other three are called the laws of motion.
 * New Inventions **
 * A Dutch scientist developed the simple microscope.
 * Galileo invented the first thermometer and built a much-improved telescope.
 * The barometer was invented by an Italian in 1643 to measure air pressure. Barometers are used to help forecast the weather.
 * These inventions gave scientists the tools they needed to make more accurate observations and to conduct experiments.
 * __ Main Idea 3: The Scientific Revolution had broad effects on society, changing ideas about the physical world, human behavior, and religion. __ **
 * The Scientific Revolution led to a dramatic change in the ways people learned about the world. The new, scientific way of gaining knowledge had far-reaching effects.
 * The scientific method combined ideas from Bacon and Descartes. It is a step-by-step method for performing experiments and other scientific research.
 * Science and Government **
 * Some thinkers began to believe that certain laws governed human nature, just like they did for nature.
 * The use of reason to consider the problems of society led philosophers to look at ways to improve society.
 * The idea that all things in nature were equal led people to believe that since all laws in society were equal, everyone in society should be equal as well.
 * This sense of equality led to the introduction of more democratic ideas for government.
 * Conflicts between Scientists and the Church **
 * The new field of science put forth ideas that conflicted with the teachings of the church.
 * One such theory was that the earth revolved around the sun, not that the sun revolved around the earth, as the church taught.
 * Church officials believed that when scientific theories contradicted the church, they weakened the church.
 * The church feared that people might start to doubt the key elements of their faith.


 * Answer the questions below on a separate piece of paper for homework (10 points) **
 * 1) What kind of thought spawns scientific thought?
 * 2) List two scientists and their contributions to the world
 * 3) List two inventions and what their purposes are
 * 4) How did the scientific revolution impact Government?

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__**Science and Exploration: Chapter 20 Section 2**__ __** Great Voyages of Discovery **__
 * __ The Big Idea: European explorers brought knowledge, wealth, and influence to their countries. __**
 * __ Main Ideas: __**
 * 1) Europeans had a desire and opportunity to explore in the 1400s and 1500s.
 * 2) Portuguese and Spanish explorers discovered new trade routes, lands, and people.
 * 3) The English and French claimed land in North America.
 * __ Main Idea 1: Europeans had a desire and opportunity to explore in the 1400s and 1500s. __**
 * An interest in discovery and exploration grew in Europe in the 1400s. Improvements in navigational tools, cartography, and shipbuilding allowed European sailors to go farther than ever before.
 * Reasons to Explore **
 * People in Europe wanted goods from Asia. Italy and Egypt controlled the trade routes and charged high prices. Europeans wanted to find their own trade routes so they wouldn’t have to pay the fees.
 * Christians wanted to spread their ideas about religion to other parts of the world.
 * Advances in technology made exploration possible.
 * Advances in Technology **
 * Sailors now had instruments such as the astrolabe and the compass to find new routes.
 * More-accurate maps allowed sailors to travel from one port to the next by using the open sea and by not having to follow the coast.
 * Shipbuilders, especially the Portuguese, made new ships with better sails and better steering.
 * __ Main Idea 2: Portuguese and Spanish explorers discovered new trade routes, lands, and people. __**
 * Prince Henry the Navigator was responsible for most of Portugal’s success on the seas. He built an observatory and a navigation school and paid people to sail on explorations.
 * Exploration **
 * In 1498 Vasco da Gama sailed around Africa and landed on the west coast of India.
 * This established the sea route to Asia.
 * One Italian sailor, Christopher Columbus, believed that he could reach Asia by sailing west across the Atlantic.
 * The king and queen of Spain gave Columbus the money to make his journey.
 * In October 1492, Columbus landed on a small island in the Bahamas. He believed that he had reached Asia.
 * Ferdinand Magellan was the first explorer to sail around the tip of South America and circumnavigate, or go all the way around, the globe.
 * A “New World” **
 * Spanish explorers called the Americas the New World.
 * When Spanish explorers arrived, the Aztec and Inca empires were at the height of their powers.
 * Spanish explorers in the New World found gold and silver as they conquered the empires there.
 * They also passed along diseases to the native peoples that killed possibly more than three-quarters of them.
 * The English and French in America **
 * Since the Spanish and Portuguese already held the southern routes through the Americas, the English and French explored northern routes.
 * Although a northern route to Asia was not established, these explorers claimed northern lands for England and for France.
 * The Spanish Armada **
 * The Spanish controlled the gold and silver from the former Aztec and Inca empires.
 * An English sailor named Francis Drake began stealing gold and silver from the Spanish ships.
 * The Spanish were angry with the English for these raids and sent 130 ships, known as the Spanish Armada, to attack England.
 * The English ships were faster and had better weapons. They were able to defeat the Spanish
 * A New European Worldview **
 * The explorations brought new knowledge and geography and proved that some old beliefs were wrong.
 * Geographers made more-accurate maps that reflected new knowledge.
 * New trade routes gave more opportunities for wealth and resources.
 * Europeans spread their influence around the world by establishing colonies and setting up new trade routes.

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__**Science and Exploration: Chapter 20 Section 3**__ **__ New Systems of Trade __**
 * __ The Big Idea: __** Exchanges between the Old World and the New World influenced the development of new economic systems: mercantilism and capitalism.
 * __ Main Ideas: __**
 * 1) Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas exchanged plants, animals, and ideas.
 * 2) In the 1600s and 1700s, new trade patterns developed, and power shifted in Europe.
 * 3) Market economies changed business in Europe.
 * __ Main Idea 1: Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas exchanged plants, animals, and ideas. __**
 * Columbian Exchange **
 * The exchange of plants, animals, and ideas between the New World (the Americas) and the Old World (Europe) is known as the Columbian Exchange.
 * Exchanges occurred when Europeans took seeds to plant crops in the New World.
 * Europeans also took animals such as cows, goats, sheep, horses, and chickens to the New World.
 * Accidental exchanges took place when Europeans brought over diseases or animals such as rats that hid in ships.
 * New World Plants and Animals **
 * While Europeans introduced plants and animals to the New World, they also found things they had not known about.
 * They took samples back to their home countries as well as to Africa and Asia.
 * Vegetables such as tomatoes, potatoes, and squash as well as plants such as tobacco had never been seen before.
 * These products went around the world. Many of them grew well in other countries, so they are now a part of those cultures.
 * Exchanges of Culture **
 * Europeans introduced their culture to the places they explored.
 * Christians set out to convert people in the new lands to their religion.
 * Missionaries also taught European languages to the native peoples.
 * Exchanges of Technology **
 * Europeans took guns and steel to parts of Africa and to the Americas.
 * The introduction of sheep and sugarcane created new industries.
 * People began to grow sugarcane on plantations, or large farms.
 * Treatment of Native Americans **
 * Plantations and mines made money for Portugal, Spain, and some colonists in the Americas.
 * However, the plantation life and mining made for bad treatment of Native Americans.
 * The Spanish colonists forced Native Americans to work on the plantations. Hard work and disease killed many.
 * Europeans then started using enslaved Africans as workers.
 * Soon, thousands of Africans were being shipped to the Americas as slave labor, and this continued until the late 1800’s
 * __ Main Idea 2: In the 1600s and 1700s, new trade patterns developed, and power shifted in Europe. __**
 * Mercantilism is a system in which a government controls all economic activity in a country and its colonies to make the government stronger and richer.
 * Mercantilism was the main economic policy in Europe between 1500 and 1800.
 * Governments did everything they could to get more gold and silver.
 * Countries tried to export more goods than they imported to keep a favorable balance of trade.
 * New Trading Patterns **
 * One major trading pattern involved the exchange of raw materials, manufactured products, and slaves among Europe, Africa, and the Americas. This type of trade was called triangular trade.
 * The Atlantic slave trade was a major part of the trade network.
 * Enslaved Africans were crammed onto ships and sent mainly to South America and the Caribbean.
 * Between the 1500s and 1600s, millions of slaves were shipped to the colonies in the New World.
 * The Shift of Power **
 * Portugal and Spain were leading economic powers in the 1500s, but that changed as the Dutch and English became stronger.
 * The Netherlands became a great trading power when Dutch merchants formed a company that traded directly with Asia.
 * England benefited greatly from increased trade with China and India as well as with North America.
 * Banking **
 * The Dutch and English set up banks due to increased trade.
 * Banking improved business.
 * Merchants could exchange money from different countries and get the correct value.
 * Money was loaned to people to start new businesses, which contributed to economic growth.
 * __ Main Idea 3: Market economies changed business in Europe. __**
 * Market Economies **
 * The growth of manufacturing economies was caused by increased demand for goods.
 * Demand was increased by a growing population, lower expenses for food, and more colonies.
 * As demand grew, businesspeople tried to find new and better ways to produce their goods. They wanted to increase their supply to meet the demand.
 * Capitalism and Market Economies **
 * Capitalism is an economic system in which individuals and private businesses run most industries. Competition among these businesses affects the cost of goods.
 * Competition works best in a market economy, in which individuals decide what goods and services they will buy.
 * In the 1800s, capitalism became the economic system of most countries in the world.

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